LOCAL AND STATE BIODIVERSITY

by Samanthia Noble

(A research paper written by Ms. Noble as a senior biology major at The University of Texas at San Antonio, for Professor Kevin Anderson's "Conservation of Resources" class. Ms. Noble is now studying Environmental Science, with a focus on Biological Conservation, at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Professor Anderson now heads the Center for Environmental Research at Hornsby Bend in Austin, Texas.)

Historical Biodiversity in Texas

When settlers first came to Texas there was vast unbroken wilderness, numerous species of plant and animal and seemingly

endless resources to support both wildlife and man.

Today much of the natural habitat of Texas has been lost or changed. If nothing is done to protect the dwindling numbers of

plants and animals, Texas's biodiversity could be in serious jeopardy.

At one time, the pine-oak lands of northeastern Texas supported gray squirrel, the eastern race of the wild turkey, and

beaver. It was also a wintering ground for the passenger pigeon. Beavers have never recovered from intensive trapping, the

passenger pigeon is extinct, and the ivory-billed woodpecker may very well be extinct as well.

The Grand Prairie, which is an extension of the North Central Plains, was once home to bison, antelope, deer, turkeys, and

prairie chickens. In the Trans-Pecos region of far west Texas, there were bighorn sheep, black bears, antelope, cougars, and

mule deer.

The numbers of these animals have decreased in the last few hundred years for many reasons. Killing bison was seen as a

sport. Many ranchers saw bison as a source of competition for cattle and other domestic animals.

Pronghorns, although naturally timid, were also very curious by nature, which made them easy targets for hunters. Pronghorns

once occupied an estimated area of 70,000 square miles. By the early 1900 s, pronghorns had for the most part disappeared.

Deer, too, occurred in uncountable numbers before settlement in Texas. The fact that deer graze on shrubs and bushes as

opposed to the valuable grasses may have made them more desirable to the early settlers.

Texas was once a state rich in birds. The coastal plains had millions of wintering Canadian, snow, and white- fronted geese,

as well as at least 25 duck species, innumerable cranes, pelicans, herons, gulls, shorebirds, and other aquatic fowl.

Texas was also home to birds of prey such as hawks, vultures, eagles, and owls. It was also home to songbirds and other birds, such as robins, wrens, hummingbirds, buntings, mockingbirds, scissor-tailed flycatchers, meadowlarks, bluebirds, swallows, and kingbirds. Prairie chickens were once abundant.

Texas was also home to its share of reptiles and fish such as the horned frog, the alligator, and the alligator gar. It also

was home to many snakes such as rattlesnakes and water moccasins.

Texas was also home to predators like wolves, coyotes, six species of large cat, bears, and peccaries. There were two

species of wolf, the red wolf and the timber or gray wolf. The doglike carnivores and the large cats were hunted, trapped, and

poisoned because they were seen as a treat to livestock.

Although the wolves and large cats were driven out of Texas through this campaign and the loss of habitat, the coyote seemed

to hold its own against the attacks.

In the 1830s and 1840s, it was brought to public attention that certain animal populations were on the decline, possibly due

to overhunting. Improved firearms, the increase in market hunting, and the notion that there was an endless supply of game

were some major factors in this.

One species particularly affected was the passenger pigeon. At one time its numbers were so large that they were barely

calculable. Some were hunted for food, including by restaurant owners. Others were killed by farmers who believed that they

might lose their crops. The passenger pigeons did have the habit of taking grain and water from livestock tanks, and hanging

around pigpens to eat corn. By the early 1890s, the wild pigeon had disappeared. By 1900, the passenger pigeon has been

eliminated from the rest of the nation as well as Texas.

Early Game Laws

The first Texas game law became law in February 1860. It prohibited the hunting of quail for two years and closed hunting

from March through August for future years. However, this first law was not statewide, which was typical of early legislation.

An amendment to include turkey and prairie chickens was not adopted, nor were deer mentioned, though numbers had declined.

In 1874, the Fourteenth Legislature made seine and net fishing illegal at certain times of the year.

In 1879, the Sixteenth Legislature proposed An Act for the Preservation of Fish, and to Build Fishways and Fish-Ladders. It

stated that any person building a dam or weir across a river was required to construct and keep in repair devices to aid fish in

returning to their spawning places, and authorized the governor to appoint a fish commissioner.

In 1879, the legislature introduced closed seasons for deer, wild turkey, prairie chickens, and quail and prohibited killing

songbirds. However, 83 counties were exempted.

In 1885, the legislature abolished the Fish Commission and did not reconstitute it until 1895. However, when it was

reconstructed, it was renamed the Fish and Oyster Commission, and included marine resources.

The new Commissioner, I.P. Kibbe, believed that many people disregarded existing laws, and the fact that many counties were

exempted from provisions made conservation impossible. No law dealing with marine fish was passed until 1887, when seines in shallow bays were prohibited.

Measures to protect birds that were being destroyed to furnish ornamental feathers, date back to the mid-1880s. The Wild Game and Birds – Protection of – Act, became law in April 1903. It was an Act to Preserve and Protect the Wild Game, Wild Birds and Wild Fowl of the State, to Provide Adequate Penalties for the Unlawful Taking, Slaughter, Sale of Shipment thereof. Section 2 made a distinction between game and non-game species, and made it illegal to possess, purchase, or sell non-game species. It also prohibited commerce in waterfowl and game mammals.

In 1903, the Act of Preserve and Protect the Wild Game, Wild Birds, and Wild Fowl of the State was passed. It established a

five-year closed season for antelope, mountain sheep and pheasants and ended commerce in wild-animal meat, skins, and

plumage.

In 1907, a law was passed which, added game to the official title of the State Fish and Oyster Commissioner; it also extended

the five-year moratorium on hunting big-horn and antelope to include prairie chickens as well as bolstering efforts to protect

deer. Section 5 provided for a chief deputy commissioner, and required the commissioner to enforce all game laws through deputy game commissioners. It gave the needed support for enforcement and authorized the Commissioner to sell hunting licenses to finance necessary enforcement. One major significance of this law is the fact that it did not include county exemptions. Still Texas had a record of poor enforcement of these laws.

In 1918, closed seasons were placed on additional species, including wood ducks and turkey hens, and the bag limits for

quail and doves was lowered from 25 to 15 birds per day.

In 1923, interest turned toward preserving habitats, riparian and coastal wetlands where untreated sewage and industrial

effluents were affecting aquatic animals, in particular.

During this time, several federal agencies began operating tracts of land in Texas such as The Aransas National Wildlife

Refuge, established in 1937. In addition, several federal laws were set, such as, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.

Other Measures

Efforts to capture and transplant game animals to former ranges where they had either been depleted or become extinct were

made after about 1920.

In 1930, Texas had 103 junior Audubon chapters totaling 4,768 members. Education programs were set up by Audubon chapters as well as by the American Ornithologists Union.

The Ecological Regions of Texas

There are several ecological regions of Texas. An ecological region is an area that has easily recognized as having certain

species of plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. They are caused by differences in such things as temperature, soil type, and

precipitation. It is difficult to determine some regions. Some people would say Texas could be divided into three regions, some

would argue that it has as many as 15. However, a good representation is 10.

The Piney Woods of East Texas – This region receives the most precipitation in the state. It contains a pine/oak forest in the

north and a long-leafed pine forest toward the south.

The Gulf Prairies and Marshes – This region runs along the Gulf coast and covers approximately 6 percent of the state. It

includes barrier islands, bays, estuaries, salt meadows, sand dunes, and marshlands. Inland from the coast used to be

tall-grass prairie; however, most of it has been converted to farming and ranching lands.

The Post Oak Savannah – This oak-dominated region runs west from the piney woods to the blackland prairies and south to just southeast of Bexar County.

Blackland Prairies – Reputed to have the richest soil in the nation, this region runs from the post oak savannah to the

cross-timbers and prairies region and south to the eastern part of Bexar County. It used to be primarily tall-grass prairie.

However, due to its rich soils, very little virgin prairie is left because of farming and ranching.

Cross Timbers and Prairies – This region is an extension of the plains of Kansas and Oklahoma. It possesses much of the same flora as these areas. It was generally rolling grassland with some areas of timber, especially along the Red and Brazos Rivers.

South Texas Plains or South Texas Thorn and Brushland – This region has a semiarid climate and is dominated by dense stands of scrubby trees such as mesquite and ash. It extends into Mexico and provides a corridor for avifauna to go between Texas and Mexico. It is the northern most range for many tropical species.

Edwards Plateau – This region covers approximately 17 percent of central and south central Texas. The eastern and

southern portions border the Balcones Fault system and are commonly referred to as the Hill Country. The Hill Country has

many springs, deep canyons, and thin rocky soils. Most of the region can be characterized as a hilly Scrub Oak and Ash Juniper savannah. Bald cypress and many other water-loving trees can be found in riparian zones along numerous streams and rivers. The uplands used to be tall and mid-grassland. However, due to fire suppression, woody species have heavily invaded the area.

Rolling Plains – This region is north of the Edwards Plateau and east of the Caprock Escarpment. It used to be primarily short grasses with bunch grasses growing in moister areas. It is now agricultural and ranch lands.

High Plains – This region extends down the western part of the Texas panhandle. This is a short-grass area, which is prone

to drought and wind.

Trans-Pecos – The Trans-Pecos region is what is generally known as west Texas. It has highly variable precipitation and

mountains up to 8,500 feet. It contains sparse short grasses in the shallow, stony soils. In the mountains are oaks, pines, and

juniper. The basin floors contain desert plants and grasses.

Current State of Texas Biodiversity

Texas is still one of the most ecologically diverse states in the nation. It contains 5,000 native vascular plants, 1,200

native vertebrates and 90 terrestrial natural communities.

However, several species of animal have been extirpated from Texas, including bison, elk, grizzly bear, gray wolf, red wolf,

black footed ferret, jaguar, margay, and bighorn sheep. Other species such as the passenger pigeon and some sub-species such as the hog-nosed skunk of the Big Thicket have become extinct altogether.

When Texas entered the Union, it was the largest prairie state, with 5 million hectares of blackland prairie. Today, fewer

than 2,025 hectares of blackland prairie remain.

Texas has lost more than 60 percent of its wetlands and about the same percentage ofits bottomland hardwood forest.

There are currently 70 species in Texas that are listed on the Endangered Species List. There are 43 animals and 27 plants.

Reasons for Biodiversity Loss in Texas

There are several reasons that biodiversity has diminished in Texas. Since Texas is such a large state, the different regions

have different causes.

Habitat Loss – In many areas, habitat loss is the main cause of loss of biodiversity. Some causes of habitat loss include

urbanization and conversion of land into agricultural or grazing lands.

Change in Habitat – Some areas remain fairly unpopulated by people, but they have been changed due to fire suppression and over-grazing, which allows the invasion of woody species into grasslands or by conversion of land from wetlands to more

habitable areas for people and other "desirable" species.

Over-hunting – This cause was particularly true before the mid-20th century. People over-hunted game species as well as

hunting species which were considered undesirable, such as bison, wolves, coyotes, bears, and the large cats.

Loss of Predators – Although the loss of predators is obviously a loss of biodiversity, it has less obvious effects as

well. For example, hunting must now control white-tailed deer populations. White-tails do very well in second-growth areas,

i.e., areas which have been disturbed and are allowed to grow back. They no longer have their natural predators such as wolves and large cats to weed out the sick and young individuals. Therefore, many of them are small, starving, less robust

individuals than the deer that once roamed Texas.

Introduction of Non-indigenous Species – Many species of both plant and animal have been introduced in Texas. Some of these include sparrows, starlings, dandelions, and China berries. Many were introduced as ornamental species or species that would remind immigrants of their homes in Europe or the eastern states. Others such as the sparrow were introduced to control pests, although they eat seeds, not insects. The invader species often do better than native species, particularly in urban and disturbed areas.

Breakup of Family Lands – In central Texas the average tract size has dropped in this generation alone from thousands of

hectares to fewer than 100. These areas used to provide large, unbroken blocks of land for wildlife habitat.

Some special Texas habitats:

Rivers and Streams – Texas has 80,000 miles of rivers and streams that support unique and valuable aquatic communities,

reservoirs, and provide freshwater inflows, nutrients and sediments to estuaries. Texas only had one natural lake, Caddo,

but now it has over 190 reservoirs. Thirty percent of Texas native fish are endangered or extinct primarily due to that

development. Other causes include changes in habitat due to introduction of non-indigenous species, changes in annual

flooding, and interrupted flow. Continued development, diversions, and flood control continue to influence this habitat.

Pollution from wastewater, non-point sources, and spills are ongoing threats.

Springs and Spring Runs – Springs and Spring Runs have some unique characteristics such as constant temperature, clear water, and in some cases isolation from connecting watercourses. They are natural settings for many rare and unusual species. A significant number of Texas springs have gone dry from man's activities such as overpumping of groundwater for irrigation and human use. Texas historically had 281 major springs. By 1973 only two of four very large and 17 of 31 large springs were still flowing. Increasing pressures on groundwater and aquifers continue to impact existing springs.

Bottomland Hardwoods – Texas's most diverse terrestrial habitats are the bottomland hardwoods. An estimated 16 million

acres of riparian habitat existed in early Texas. Over 60 percent has been lost to agricultural conversion, timber production,

urban or industrial development, and reservoir construction. Additional water development, new technologies in the use of

hardwood pulp, and forestry practices threaten this habitat, especially in East Texas.

Coastal Wetlands – One-third of all endangered species occur here, and millions of waterfowl overwinter here. Some 53 percent of all U.S. wetlands have been lost to dredging and filling for development, subsidence, and agricultural conversion. Texas has lost over 50 percent of its original 1.2 million acres. Thirty- five percent of losses occurred since 1950. Almost half of Texas estuarine areas are closed or conditionally closed to shellfish harvest due to pollution. Coastal development, loss of freshwater inflows, and rising sea levels continue to threaten remaining wetlands.

Texas Prairie – Over 20 million acres of tallgrass communities once covered the Texas Prairies. Of the 12.6 million

acres of Blackland Prairie fewer than 100,000 acres, or less than 1 percent, of native sod still exist today. Endangered species

such as the Attwater's prairie chicken are on the edge of extinction because of prairie loss. Continued loss to prairie

lands is expected. The key to saving this area will be restoration, cooperative actions, and private landowners.

Local Biodiversity

Bexar County is an ecologically interesting area. Four different ecological regions come together here. The Edwards

Plateau region is in the northwest part of the county. The southern half of Bexar County is the South Texas Plains. The

Blackland Prairies dominate the northcentral and northeast portion of Bexar County. In addition, a small portion of far

northeastern Bexar County is the Post Oak Savannah.

Areas in which more than one biological region come together are known as ecotones. Ecotones tend to be very biologically

diverse. Species of plant and animals that would normally be found in one region may occur in an ecotone next to another

plants or animals that would occur in a different region. However, due to urbanization, pollution pressures, and water

shortages, the biological diversity in this area is threatened.

In San Antonio, there are green belts and riparian areas that give wildlife access to enter and exit the city. Some species,

such as raccoons, opossums, and even coyotes have adapted to city life pretty well. They continue to live and even thrive in many urban areas.

Songbirds have not fared quite as well. There are three major causes of songbird loss. The first is the loss of habitat. Even

in areas outside of the city, people tend to want to manage their property by clearing out the understory growth. Many people do not even know that they are destroying songbird habitat. Other areas have been cleared for business development.

The second cause of songbird loss is the introduction of non-native species. These species compete with the native

songbirds for food and nesting sites. Some of the non-native species such as sparrows and starlings are very well adapted to

city life. They nest in high trees or on building and prefer little or no under growth.

A third threat to songbirds, are domestic cats and dogs. Feral cats as well as pets are a big problem for songbirds. Cats will

often attack songbirds, sometimes killing them, sometimes just wounding them badly. Many do not do it for food, but for play, so even well fed pets pose a problem.

Why is Biodiversity Important for San Antonio?

In the long-run biodiversity in San Antonio and the surrounding areas is important for many of the same reasons as

its important in the rest of the nation and the world. It can mean genetic diversity for agriculture. It can provide a source

for new medicines. Native plants were once used by Native Americans as well as the first European settlers for food. They

plants could be used as food sources again, especially since they require much less water than commercial food crops.

In the short run biodiversity can mean big business to San Antonio. Nature tourism is the third largest industry in Texas.

It is a $25.4 billion business that supports 446,000 employees. If biodiversity is lost, so too is this important industry. Areas

can be restored and plants and animals reintroduced to provide even more land for so-called ecotourism.

What is Being Done?

There are several organization and programs in both Texas and San Antonio that work to save the biodiversity of this and other Texas areas.

The Texas Parks and Wildlife urban biologist office – This is a nonregulatory office, which means that it does not make or enforce any laws. However, they do act as the voice for wildlife in San Antonio. They create educational programs, help people convert their land back to its original form, such as in the Blackland Prairies on the Northeast side. They work with builders to educate them on native habitats and native species. They go to City Council meetings and act as representatives for the local wildlife. They act as advisors to both private citizens and to local organizations and government.

The Nature Conservancy-Texas Chapter – The Nature Conservancy is an international, private non-profit conservation

organization. It provides the largest system of private sanctuaries in the world. The Nature Conservancy has protected

323,000 acres of ecologically unique land through acquisition and 150,000 acres through cooperative work with private landowners, for a total of 473,000 acres in Texas. Some 34,000 members support the Texas Chapter. One of the closest preserves to San Antonio is the Elizabeth P. Hill Preserve located in the eastern Edward's Plateau region.

The San Antonio Botanical Gardens – The San Antonio Botanical Gardens is 35 acres of wilderness in the middle of the city. It features example gardens of several regions of Texas including the Edwards Plateau, the Hill Country, and South Texas. The Gardens also sponsors the Prairie Restoration Project, along with the Master Naturalists, and Trinity University. In 1996, the San Antonio Botanical Garden dedicated a piece of the Native Texas area to serve as an urban-scale prairie restoration project. The total area of the project is about one third of an acre and is about the scale that an urban Texan might consider reproducing at home. They are trying to restore the prairie to its original condition, and are trying to eliminate bermuda grass, sour clover, fire ants, and other non-native species. They are also trying to reproduce the effect of the bison by periodically

disturbing the soil. A major objective of the project is to reintroduce a variety of native plants that once formed essential

components of the prairie ecosystem. This includes native birds and native insects such as bees and butterflies. They have tips

and suggestions for interested homeowners on how to start their own prairies.

Mitchell Lake Wetlands – Mitchell Lake has an approximate surface area of 600 acres with an average water depth of less

than eight feet. It has been used as a watering hole, in the 1700s and as a wastewater treatment facility from the early 1900s

until 1987. It is currently being operated and managed by the San Antonio Water System with input from citizens groups such as the San Antonio Audubon Society, the Mitchell Lake Wetlands Society, and the Southside Chamber of Commerce. It was declared a refuge for shore birds and waterfowl in 1973 and continues to be an important birding site. SAWS is researching the possibility of making Mitchell Lake an educational and research wetlands site and a source for eco-tourism.

Friedrich Wilderness Park – The Friedrich Wilderness Park is a nature preserve located just northwest of San Antonio. It has 5.5 miles of hiking trails, guided tours on the first Saturday of every month and Nature Programs on the second Saturday of every month. Other special events and programs occur throughout the year including Friedrich Guide Training and the Master Naturalist Program.

Master Naturalist Program – This program is designed to improve the understanding and management of natural resources in urban areas. The Master Naturalist Program provides extensive training, to volunteers, in how to conserve natural resources.

The goals of the program include: (1) Provide community volunteers to coordinate and implement beneficial natural

resource projects in urban parks, natural areas, and public open spaces; (2) Assist the management and interpretation of natural systems; (3) Create a self-administered and sustaining volunteer-based program; (4) Improve the management of natural resources and the benefits to the community' (5) Increase the general public's knowledge and understanding of the proper use and management of natural resources and their benefits to the community; (7) Work with schools to incorporate hands-on education programs that utilize and outdoor setting to teach students core curriculum and increase students understanding and appreciation of the natural world. Volunteers must complete 40 hours of training and 40 hours of community service to obtain Master Naturalist status. Then they must provide 40 hours per year to the community through Master Naturalist projects and complete at least eight hours of continuing education courses per year to maintain Master Naturalist status.

City of San Antonio Open Space Advisory Board – The Open Space Advisory Board serves as an advisory body to the Planning Commission and City Council on matter relating to the Open Space Education Program and implementation of the Open Space Plan Advisory Board. Open space is any area of land or water that is undeveloped. In San Antonio, an open space is one that has been designated to stay underdeveloped. Some open spaces in San Antonio include: recreational parks; floodplains, creeks, and rivers; hike and bike trails; nature preserves; neighborhood island parks; historic and cultural sites that are non-residential; botanical and zoological parks; and sensitive biological or geological features. Open spaces increase property values, allow nature to continue thriving, and save public funds by preventing development of areas such as flood plains. It also saves money because land conservation is often less expensive for local governments than typical development.

(Over 97 percent of Texas lands are privately owned. The next two programs are important because of this.)

Texas Land Stewards Society – The Texas Land Stewards Society's mission is to find, protect, and maintain the best

examples of communities, ecosystems, and endangered species in the natural world. They do this by granting membership to

landowners who have agreed voluntarily to protect special natural areas that occur on their land. The special natural areas are

those that contain a healthy population of a rare or endangered plant or animal species, or a rare or unique plant community. A

member agrees to preserve and protect the identified natural area, to notify The Nature Conservancy of Texas of any threats to the area such as pollution, encroachment, or rights-of-way, to notify The Nature Conservancy of Texas of any intent to sell or transfer ownership of the property, and to allow The Nature Conservancy to visit the site annually at a mutually agreeable

time. By doing so the member receives several benefits such as consultation on management practices, invitation to special

Conservancy workshops, seminars, demonstrations, and field trips, public recognition if desired, a plaque, and a subscription to The Nature Conservancy Magazine. There is no fee for membership and the membership is voluntary and non-binding.

Landowner Incentive Program – The goal of this program is also to encourage landowners to conserve rare species and their habitat by providing funding. The proposed action must contribute to the enhancement of at least one rare species or its habitat. Rare species include those species that are federally listed as threatened or endangered as well as selected species included in the 1995 Endangered Resources Action Plan. The landowner's property must be able to provide suitable habitat for a rare species. The movement or reintroduction of the species onto that property must be feasible and the property must be in the historic range of the targeted species. The results of the action must be measurable. Therefore, the owner must agree to allow biologists onto the property for a pre-agreement survey and periodic progress checks to assess the success of the project objectives. The landowner must be willing to sign an agreement and management plan.

What Can Individuals Do?

Individuals do have the power to make a difference. San Antonians can plant native species of plants in their yards.

This would not only increase native plant species; it would attract native birds and insects such as butterflies as well. It

also saves water, because native species are much more drought resistant. Yards that are wildscaped may actually look better in the heat of the summer than lawns planted with non-native flowers and grasses. If everyone in a subdivision planted native species, then there would be quite large section of native habitat.

People can also join or participate in any of the above mentioned organizations. Becoming active in the community helps

people appreciate the natural beauty around them as well as helps them to better understand what they can do to help.

Ninety-three percent of Texans believe endangered species should be protected, and 59 percent are willing to spend more tax money to set aside and protect wilderness areas for endangered species. With numbers like that, biodiversity might just have a

chance in Texas.